Fences

Barbed wire is shaped like a certain attitude toward the world; it lends a taut-strung control over a large area It works because it derives maximum cruelly from a minimum of material. Like many other elements of our culture, it is hated almost as widely as it is used. --C.L. Rawlings, Western poet

The most conspicuous so-called range "improvement" is the ever-present barbed wire fence. Fences stretch for hundreds of thousands of miles across Western public land, almost all of which serve solely or primarily for livestock grazing management.

As mentioned, each Western public lands grazing allotment encompasses an average of more than 10,000 acres, or about 16 square miles -- representing a territory about 4 miles by 4 miles (though they are rarely square). Each of these 30,000 allotments is enclosed by boundary fences around its perimeter. Even if all allotments shared all boundaries and were perfectly square, this would still amount to 245,000 miles of fence. Allowing for boundaries shared with private lands and non-grazed public lands and the common irregular allotment shapes, the figure is certainly at least 300,000. However, most allotments are also cross-fenced, many heavily so, and other non-boundary fences on allotments run along roads, utility corridors, recreation area boundaries, and so on, altogether probably traversing at least as many miles as allotment boundary fences. Thus, we may reasonably estimate at least 600,000 miles of livestock fences on Western public land -- more than enough to stretch to the moon and back, or around the Earth 24 times! Including private lands, which generally are more heavily fenced than public, the figure for the West is surely well over 1 million miles.

There are 2 basic types of fences. Division fences enclose the boundaries of a range grazing unit. They are used to divvy up our public land into manageable grazing allotments for use by private livestock interests. Division fences also divide these allotments into smaller parcels for conducting various grazing systems, segregating livestock into different age and sex groups, and keeping different owners' livestock within their respective grazing areas on joint allotments.

Drift fences are not intended as enclosures, per se, but as barriers to keep livestock in certain areas and prevent them from drifting to areas where they are not wanted. Many drift fences retain livestock in certain preferred grazing areas, often tying in to natural barriers such as steep ridges, ravines, and cliffs. Others keep livestock away from poisonous plants, extreme rockiness or brushiness, dangerous cliffs, or predators. Some drift fences are used to help funnel and then contain cattle during roundup. Still others keep cattle and sheep off roadways and out of campgrounds, recreation areas, or grass seeding areas. Drift fences may even be intended to keep competing wild herbivores away, or to exclude people from certain livestock -areas.

Of course fences can also be used to protect the environment from livestock, as is often the case with National Parks, nature preserves, and such. Nonetheless, if there were no livestock on adjacent public land these fences would not be needed. For example, after livestock grazing was terminated in both Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument and Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge in southwestern Arizona, the long barbed wire fence separating the two no longer served any purpose and was removed.

Many well-meaning groups and individuals have proposed fencing livestock out of selected ecologically sensitive areas -- especially heavily "cattlized" riparian zones. Though their intent is commendable, this is a poor substitute for removing livestock from these areas. For instance, throwing cattle out of riparian zones and onto surrounding rangeland would result (and has resulted, where it has occurred) in more damage to these less heavily grazed and often more fragile areas. Riparian ecosystem consultant Harold Winegar concludes

Watersheds are all connected If you move cattle out of the stream bottoms and into the uplands you will still be pounding to death the springs, seeps, and creeks, not to mention contributing to soil compaction over the entire uplands. More fences also entail more wells drilled, roads and stock tanks built, water sources developed, and other harmful ranching development.

IMAGE

Forest Service installing a fence on Montana range. (USFS)

Fences serve many other purposes, not the least of which is giving public land the appearance of private ownership. Stockmen benefit in several ways:

Probably most Americans, when confronting a barbed wire fence or gate, assume the land behind is privately owned or, if publicly owned, is off-limits. Many others are unable to cross over. This group of people -- sightseers, photographers, picnickers, hikers, campers, fishers, hunters, birders, rockhounds, Nature lovers, and so on -represents the general public. In keeping this large segment of the population away from most public rangeland, fences help prevent the public from becoming aware of ranching abuses.

Others who visit public land for purposes of resource exploitation are generally well aware of land ownership, and so are not deterred by fences and gates. Indeed, most of these people are glad to have fences to filter out the general populace -- what they consider a nuisance and potential opposition. Consequently, in effect, what fences do is allow through those people who tend to exploit public land and bar those who would tend to defend it.

Additionally, by keeping the public off public land, ranchers minimize competition and hindrance from "nonconsumptive" land users. These people scare cattle and leave gates open. They complain about overgrazing, livestock-polluted water, lack of wildlife, and cow pies, flies, and cows in their camps. Some cut fences, punch holes in stock water tanks, take salt blocks, remove traps and poisons, damage corrals, vandalize ranching equipment, and shoot cattle.

Importantly, fences tend to foster in stockmen a sense of possession of public land. Barbed wire is a worldwide symbol of conquest and domination. Fences define boundaries of influence. Any land, enclosed and cross-fenced with barbed wire, seems under the control or influence of the man for whom the fences were built. Stockmen cannot help but feel this sense of power; indeed, many relish it. The psychological motivation it gives helps provide the impetus they need to treat public land as their own.

If a permittee can demonstrate a need (or an apparent need) for a new fence on "his" allotment, construction is usually forthcoming. The BLM, FS, or other land managing agency almost invariably supplies planning and materials while, depending on circumstances, either the permittee or agency supplies labor. Quite often government plans construction and provides both. Additionally, the taxpayer usually assumes responsibility for fence building and maintenance between allotments, along roadways and utility corridors, surrounding federal installations, and around other government and private lands requiring exclusion of livestock.

Livestock fences on public land are of many different kinds, but by far most common is 3, 4, or 5 strands of barbed wire set on wooden, metal, or (very infrequently) reinforced concrete posts. First sturdy, well-anchored corner and support posts are installed. Then strands of barbed wire are stretched tightly and nailed or wired to the "line" posts between. Or, barbed wire strands are simply stretched from tree to tree, or sometimes between rock faces. Posts are commonly spaced 20' to 30' apart, with 2 to 4 equally spaced wooden or special spiral metal "stays" holding barbed wire strands the proper distance apart so cattle can't push their way through. Gates may be spaced miles apart or as closely as 4 or 5 per mile, depending on the wants and needs of the local rancher and the priorities of the local public lands managers.

Wire mesh fences are used on many allotments where sheep are grazed. Where tourism is important and scenic quality high priority, log or split rail fences are sometimes employed. In portions of the high country West, especially where moose wander right through ordinary fences and abundant lodgepole pine or other small, straight trees provide free fence materials, "buck-and-pole" fences are the way to go. Even rock walls are seen occasionally in some extremely rocky areas, usually where volcanic activity has provided numerous medium-sized rocks. And electric fences are increasingly popular on public land. Some of the more modern of these are set up in various grid patterns and connected to a central switchboard.

IMAGE

In some grazed areas with significant pedestrian traffic, people cross fences on specially designed stairs or through Uor V-shaped chutes which allow through people but block cattle.

IMAGE

Electric cattle fence. (Paul Hirt)

IMAGE

Where fences traverse exposed rock, holes are drilled and posts anchored into concrete. BLM land near Moab in southeast Utah.

Construction and maintenance of livestock fences is not the hokey, harmless activity pictured in cowboy movies and TV commercials. It often entails bulldozing vegetation, chainsawing trees and brush, girdling trees with wire (which often kills them), dislodging large rocks (from the ground, outcroppings, or cliff faces), excavating topsoil, sometimes even dynamiting. Fence building consumes endless rolls of barbed wire, millions of metal posts, tons of nails, staples, and wire stays -- from natural resources that could be left in the ground.

IMAGE

Where fences span drainages and low spots, boulders, logs, or other heavy objects are displaced and wired to strands for stabilization.

IMAGE

Lower branches of this tree were cut for fence posts, killing it.

For posts, stays, gates, corrals, etc., ranchers and government employees have cut branches from, or cut down, millions of trees and bushes. Stockmen often are given permission to cut wood for ranching materials in areas where cutting for all other purposes is disallowed. Not bothering with even the formalities, many ranchers simply cut whatever they want, whenever and wherever they want. Thus, in some areas of the West the sparse brush and tree cover has been depleted, disrupting environmental processes and other human use.

IMAGE

Some girdled trees grow around the wire, but many eventually die because the wire chokes off their vital cambium layer. Millions of trees in the West have been girdled for fences.

IMAGE

This oak bears old scars from barbed wire, which may have introduced the disease that killed it. Coronado National Forest in southeast Arizona.

IMAGE

Wide swaths are cut through woody vegetation to facilitate construction and maintenance of fences.

Wherever possible, the government and ranchers build roads to help in the construction and maintenance of fences. In gentle terrain, the rancher may simply drive crosscountry in to and alongside fencelines, thereby creating new roads. A common rangeland sight is the miles-long, arrowstraight fenceline leading into the horizon with a paralleling dirt road at its flank, or on both sides.

After fences are completed or repaired, waste materials commonly are discarded onto the nearby countryside or left where they lay. Old or obsolete fences usually are left to rot or rust where they stand, leaving spaghetti-like strands of rusty barbed wire strewn across the landscape laying in wait for passing animals, humans, and vehicles.

Fences tend to be located where easiest to build and maintain, most convenient for ranching activities, and most profitable -- and often not where they are authorized. They run beside roads, lengthwise through canyon and valley bottoms, alongside waterways and drainages, along ridge tops, and across passes and saddles. Many bisect creeks and streams to provide water access to livestock in the numerous pastures that radiate out from water sources into the surrounding countryside. Thus, fences generally are concentrated where they most effectively interfere with natural processes, wildlife, and human visitors.

Wire fences on public land kill and maim many wild and domestic animals. Ranchers often complain about escaping calves and sheep, as well as adult cattle pushing through fences, so fences usually are built strong and tight, with close-spaced wires, the bottom wire close to the ground. Larger animals such as deer, elk, moose, pronghorn, and horses, in trying to cross fences, become entangled. Failing to clear the top strand, they may wedge a hind leg between the 2 uppermost strands and hang there to die from exposure or thirst, or to be eaten by predators. Or, in attempting to go under or through fences, animals may become entangled or pinch a leg in a tight spot. One study of the causes of accidental deaths of bighorns, for example, found 12% attributable to fences and other wire. Other bighorns were thought to have torn themselves free and escaped with serious injuries. (Ferguson 1983) Animals malnourished, diseased, or otherwise impaired due to ranching impacts are less able to negotiate fences.

IMAGE

(George Robbins Photo, Jackson, WY)

IMAGE

Where fences or other obstacles block movement, livestock often travel alongside in a parallel manner, one animal following another, creating trails. Other trails are formed where livestock move along common routes to and from water sources, salt blocks, shade trees, and forage areas. Thus have been created tens of thousands of miles of wide trails across the West -- representing hundreds of square miles of trampled, bare dirt. Note the fenceline contrast. (SCS, USDA)

Dogs, coyotes, foxes, bobcats, raccoons, and other large to mid-sized mammals likewise die lingering deaths. Even smaller animals may entangle their fur in single barbs, or collide with fences and wound themselves, opening their bodies to infection, disease, and parasites. Fence wire in water is especially injurious to beavers, muskrats, river otters, fish, and diving waterfowl. Fences straddling waterways and drainages may also catch large amounts of flood debris, causing jam-ups and consequent flash flooding.

Birds crash into barbed fence strands, often when the strands are concealed by vegetation. Especially vulnerable are large birds of prey, waterfowl, and large night-flying birds such as owls and nightjars. Sandhill cranes and even Endangered whooping cranes have been killed on fences on National Wildlife Refuges in Oregon, Idaho, and Colorado.

IMAGE

A cattle fence on the San Pedro River, Arizona. The washedout portion in the background lurks underwater.

Another problem with fences is that they impede migration and restrict free movement of many large animals, thus shrinking their territories and limiting access to key areas of food, water, minerals, mating, hibernating, etc. In fact, some ranchers build fences for the calculated purpose of keeping wildlife competitors off both their private property and "their" public lands allotments.

Pronghorn and bighorns are especially susceptible to being "trapped" by fences. When encountering a fence, they are prone to walk along rather than cross over. Thus, failing to reach necessary destinations, they sometimes die from thirst, starvation, or exposure. (In the early ranching years, market hunters purposefully drove herds of pronghorn and other large herbivores up against fences and slaughtered them in large numbers.)

IMAGE

From The Coyote: Defiant Songdog of the West, Revised & Updated by Francois Leydet. Copyright (C) 1977, 1988 by Francois Leydet. Used by permission of the University of Oklahoma Press.

The public became aware of this problem only in winter 1983, when in southern Wyoming 700 pronghorn fleeing a series of blizzards stacked up against a barbed wire fence, where they starved and froze. The fence, enclosing more than 20,000 acres of private, state, and federal land, prevented the pronghorn from reaching their natural feeding grounds. Not wanting to remove the fence or modify its lower strand to accommodate wildlife and responding to a lawsuit by environmentalists, the rancher took his case to the Supreme Court. (A recent court decision ordered him to modify the fence's lower strand, but it remains to be seen if he will do so.) In recent years the government has in some areas provided "antelope guards" -- specially-designed grills similar to cattle guards emplaced along fences to restrict livestock but allow pronghorm passage.

Deer and elk jump most fences fairly easily, but like most large animals -- including bears, moose, mountain lions, and mountain goats -- they prefer walking along rather than going over, under, or through fences. Buffalo usually don't jump fences (though they are capable of it), but will push right through them, sometimes getting entangled.

IMAGE

(Brush Wolf)

To help confine sheep and reduce predation, sheep ranchers and government agencies have since the 1800s erected thousands of miles of net-wire fences across public land. This type of fence has been especially restrictive to some wildlife species, particularly pronghorn, which have consequently declined in many areas. For example, the llano estacado in southeastern New Mexico once supported one of North America's greatest pronghorn populations, but it crashed when a network of tightly woven sheep fences was erected on public lands in the area (Foreman 1991). Taxpayers have recently replaced some sheep fences with barbed wire, but thousands of miles remain.

Little recognized is that livestock grazing and roadside fences team up to cause millions of animal deaths each year. Most Western roadways are fenced to keep livestock off. The grazed countryside usually is barren compared to the luxuriantly vegetated, fenced, ungrazed roadsides -- hence the startling fenceline contrasts that confuse many a traveler in the West. Pavement runoff from rain accounts for much of this difference on downhill slopes, but the dramatic contrast usually begins exactly at the fenceline. Even on uphill roadsides, where runoff cannot reach, the contrast is usually striking. This difference is due to livestock grazing and is the cause of many wildlife deaths, for these lushly vegetated roadsides not only support a much greater number and variety of animals, but attract many of the surviving animals from surrounding, overgrazed areas. Mammal , birds, reptiles, amphibians, rodents, and insects concentrate there. As they run, crawl, or fly across roads, after being scared or simply moving from one place to another, they are hit by oncoming vehicles. Vultures, crows, ravens, coyotes, raccoons, and other scavengers seek out these roadkills and often become roadkills themselves.

IMAGE

A pronghorn finds lush early spring grass along a highway right-of-way, its overgrazed range in the background. (George Robbins Photo, Jackson, WY)

IMAGE

The photographer claims that this mule deer was hit by a vehicle while seeking the comparatively abundant roadside vegetation. (George Robbins Photo, Jackson, WY)

Fences may contribute to environmental decline in other, seldom understood ways. For example, studies show that in some grasslands and deserts lacking natural high observation points, fence posts may allow predators "too good" a view of nearby prey, thus leading to overkill and eventual decline of predators as well. Once again, ecosystem components are simply not adapted to artificial developments.

Though fences are already nearly omnipresent, the Forest Service, BLM, and others have launched a campaign to build an even more complex network, to eventually include hundreds of thousands of miles of new fences. Ostensibly to "facilitate resource management," the effort is actually a desperate attempt to maintain livestock production levels by creating ever-smaller grazing areas of ever more intensive management.

Expansion of rotation systems as planned will require extensive fencing of westem ranges in the years ahead. Each grazing area would be fenced into subunits to be rotated according to plan by the stockmen whose livestock graze it. In effect, the West would be extensively subdivided into pastures if these plans are carried out.

--Frederic H. Wagner, Livestock Grazing and the Livestock Industry (Wagner 1978)

NEXT PAGE